Unrest at the Gates of Aleppo: British Perspectives on the Bedouin Challenge to Public Security in Northern Syria, 1848-1913

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Abstract

Michael Kreutz

The political situation in the eastern Arab world during the colonial period was subject not only to the interests of the great powers of East and West but also to disturbances caused by tribal Arabs who found refuge in the desert. Although there has been much research on bedouin of both the nomadic and the sedentary tribes of Syria and its hinterland—mostly drawing on ethnographic aspects—little has been written on the tribes as a challenge to political stability. Aleppo is of special interest since it was an important city close to the desert frontier and was under permanent threat of bedouin raids. The city also was and still is a place of sectarian diversity, second only to Beirut, and all too often the Christian population was wedged between the Ottoman government and nomadic tribes. Dealing with the bedouin thus touches all aspects of an eroding Ottoman power that affected Levantine urban life and sectarian coexistence. This paper draws on previously unpublished archival sources of the British Consulate in Aleppo.

Abstract: Michael Kreutz

The political situation in the eastern Arab world during the colonial period was subject not only to the interests of the great powers of East and West but also to disturbances caused by tribal Arabs who found refuge in the desert. Although there has been much research on bedouin of both the nomadic and the sedentary tribes of Syria and its hinterland—mostly drawing on ethnographic aspects—little has been written on the tribes as a challenge to political stability. Aleppo is of special interest since it was an important city close to the desert frontier and was under permanent threat of bedouin raids. The city also was and still is a place of sectarian diversity, second only to Beirut, and all too often the Christian population was wedged between the Ottoman government and nomadic tribes. Dealing with the bedouin thus touches all aspects of an eroding Ottoman power that affected Levantine urban life and sectarian coexistence. This paper draws on previously unpublished archival sources of the British Consulate in Aleppo.

Abstact in Arabic
Abstract in Hebrew
Abstract in Turkish

إضطراب على أبواب حلب: مناظير بريطانية حول تحدّي البدو للأمن العام في شمال سورية، 1848-1914
ميخائيل كروتس

لم يعان الشرق العربي في الحقبة الكولونيالية من مطامع القوى العظمى في الشرق والغرب فحسب، بل عانى كذلك من اضطرابات تسبّبت بها بعض القبائل العربية التي اتخذت الصحراء ملجأً لها. بالرغم من غزارة البحث الأكاديمي حول فئتي القبائل البدوية المرتحلة والحضرية ومناطقها في سورية – والتي غالبًا ما تعتمد المناظير الإثنوغرافية – هنالك القليل الأبحاث حول القبائل بوصفها تشكّل تحديًا للاستقرار السياسي. تتمتّع حلب بأهمية خاصة بفعل مكانتها الهامة كمدينة تقع بمحاذاة صحراء وعانت بصورة دائمة من التهديد بالسطو عليها من جانب البدو. كذلك كانت مدينة حلب ولا زالت مكانًا تعيش بين ظهرانيها طوائف عديدة، تأتي بالمرتبة الثانية بعد بيروت، والتي عانت من الحكم العثماني من جهة ومن البدو الرحّل أيضًا. ينطوي تناول البدو كموضوع بحث على تلمّس جميع عوامل تآكل السلطة العثمانية التي ساهمت في نشوء حياة مدينية ليفانتية والتعايش بين جميع الطوائف. تستند هذه الورقة إلى مصادر أرشيفية غير منشورة خاصة بالقنصلية البريطانية في حلب.

מתיחות בשעריה של אלפו: נקודות מבט בריטיות על האתגר הבדואי לביטחון הציבור בצפון סוריה, 1848-1913
מיכאל קרוייץ

המצב הפוליטי במזרח העולם הערבי במהלך התקופה הקולוניאלית נקבע לא רק על ידי האינטרסים של המעצמות הגדולות במזרח ובמערב; גם ההפרעות שנגרמו על ידי שבטים ערביים אשר מצאו מפלט במדבר השפיעו רבות. על אף המחקר הרב על שבטים בדואיים נוודים ויושבי קבע בסוריה גופא ובאזור הסְפר שלה – מחקר שהתמקד התמקדות יתרה בהיבטים אתנוגרפיים – מעט נכתב על שבטים אלו כמי שהציבו אתגר ליציבות הפוליטית. העיר אלפו (Aleppo) מעוררת עניין מיוחד, מאחר שהייתה זו עיר חשובה, עיר סְפר על סף המדבר, שסבלה מאיום מתמיד של פשיטות של שבטים בדואיים. העיר הייתה ועודנה מקום מגורים לקבוצות דתיות מגוונות, שנייה ברב-גוניותה רק לביירות, ולעתים קרובות האוכלוסייה הנוצרית בה מצאה את עצמה בתווך שבין הממשל העות’מאני לבין שבטים נוודים. לפיכך, העיסוק באוכלוסייה הבדואית נוגע בכל ההיבטים של שחיקת הכוח העות’מאני – שחיקה שהשפיעה על החיים העירוניים בלבנט ועל הדו-קיום של קבוצות דתיות. המאמר נסמך על מקורות ארכיוניים של הקונסוליה הבריטית באלפו שטרם פורסמו.

Halep Kapılarında Gerginlik: İngiliz Perspektifinden Kuzey Suriye’de Kamu Güvenliğine Bedevi Problemi 1848-1913

Michael Kreutz

Kolonyal dönemde doğu Arap dünyasında siyasi durum sadece Doğu ve Batı’nın süper güçlerinin ilgisini çekmekle kalmadı, aynı zamanda çölde barınan Arap aşiretlerinin yarattığı karışıklıkla çalkalandı. Suriye’nin göçebe ve yerleşik Bedevi aşiretleri ve hinterlandı ile ilgili çok sayıda, -çoğunlukla etnoğrafik açıdan ele alınmış- araştırma bulunmasına rağmen, aşiretlerin siyasi istikrara karşı mücadelesi çok az yazılagelmiştir /hakkında çok az yazılmıştır. Halep çöl sınırına yakın ve Bedevi baskınlarıyla devamlı tehdit altında bir şehir olması bakımından özellikle ilgi çekicidir/ özel ilgiye haizdir. Beyrut’tan sonra mezhepsel çeşitliliğin hem geçmişte, hem günümüzde en yoğun olarak bulunduğu bu şehirde, sıklıkla Hristiyan nüfus Osmanlı yönetimi ve göçebe aşiretler arasında kalmıştır. Bedevileri ele almak, bu nedenle mezheplerin bir arada varoluşunu ve Levanten şehir yaşamını etkileyen zayıflamakta olan Osmanlı gücünü tüm yönlerine ele almak demektir. Bu makale Halep’teki İngiliz Konsolosluğunun daha önce yayınlanmamış arşiv kayıtlarından faydalanmıştır.

Abstact in Arabic: إضطراب على أبواب حلب: مناظير بريطانية حول تحدّي البدو للأمن العام في شمال سورية، 1848-1914
ميخائيل كروتس

لم يعان الشرق العربي في الحقبة الكولونيالية من مطامع القوى العظمى في الشرق والغرب فحسب، بل عانى كذلك من اضطرابات تسبّبت بها بعض القبائل العربية التي اتخذت الصحراء ملجأً لها. بالرغم من غزارة البحث الأكاديمي حول فئتي القبائل البدوية المرتحلة والحضرية ومناطقها في سورية – والتي غالبًا ما تعتمد المناظير الإثنوغرافية – هنالك القليل الأبحاث حول القبائل بوصفها تشكّل تحديًا للاستقرار السياسي. تتمتّع حلب بأهمية خاصة بفعل مكانتها الهامة كمدينة تقع بمحاذاة صحراء وعانت بصورة دائمة من التهديد بالسطو عليها من جانب البدو. كذلك كانت مدينة حلب ولا زالت مكانًا تعيش بين ظهرانيها طوائف عديدة، تأتي بالمرتبة الثانية بعد بيروت، والتي عانت من الحكم العثماني من جهة ومن البدو الرحّل أيضًا. ينطوي تناول البدو كموضوع بحث على تلمّس جميع عوامل تآكل السلطة العثمانية التي ساهمت في نشوء حياة مدينية ليفانتية والتعايش بين جميع الطوائف. تستند هذه الورقة إلى مصادر أرشيفية غير منشورة خاصة بالقنصلية البريطانية في حلب.
Abstract in Hebrew: מתיחות בשעריה של אלפו: נקודות מבט בריטיות על האתגר הבדואי לביטחון הציבור בצפון סוריה, 1848-1913
מיכאל קרוייץ

המצב הפוליטי במזרח העולם הערבי במהלך התקופה הקולוניאלית נקבע לא רק על ידי האינטרסים של המעצמות הגדולות במזרח ובמערב; גם ההפרעות שנגרמו על ידי שבטים ערביים אשר מצאו מפלט במדבר השפיעו רבות. על אף המחקר הרב על שבטים בדואיים נוודים ויושבי קבע בסוריה גופא ובאזור הסְפר שלה – מחקר שהתמקד התמקדות יתרה בהיבטים אתנוגרפיים – מעט נכתב על שבטים אלו כמי שהציבו אתגר ליציבות הפוליטית. העיר אלפו (Aleppo) מעוררת עניין מיוחד, מאחר שהייתה זו עיר חשובה, עיר סְפר על סף המדבר, שסבלה מאיום מתמיד של פשיטות של שבטים בדואיים. העיר הייתה ועודנה מקום מגורים לקבוצות דתיות מגוונות, שנייה ברב-גוניותה רק לביירות, ולעתים קרובות האוכלוסייה הנוצרית בה מצאה את עצמה בתווך שבין הממשל העות’מאני לבין שבטים נוודים. לפיכך, העיסוק באוכלוסייה הבדואית נוגע בכל ההיבטים של שחיקת הכוח העות’מאני – שחיקה שהשפיעה על החיים העירוניים בלבנט ועל הדו-קיום של קבוצות דתיות. המאמר נסמך על מקורות ארכיוניים של הקונסוליה הבריטית באלפו שטרם פורסמו.
Abstract in Turkish: Halep Kapılarında Gerginlik: İngiliz Perspektifinden Kuzey Suriye’de Kamu Güvenliğine Bedevi Problemi 1848-1913

Michael Kreutz

Kolonyal dönemde doğu Arap dünyasında siyasi durum sadece Doğu ve Batı’nın süper güçlerinin ilgisini çekmekle kalmadı, aynı zamanda çölde barınan Arap aşiretlerinin yarattığı karışıklıkla çalkalandı. Suriye’nin göçebe ve yerleşik Bedevi aşiretleri ve hinterlandı ile ilgili çok sayıda, -çoğunlukla etnoğrafik açıdan ele alınmış- araştırma bulunmasına rağmen, aşiretlerin siyasi istikrara karşı mücadelesi çok az yazılagelmiştir /hakkında çok az yazılmıştır. Halep çöl sınırına yakın ve Bedevi baskınlarıyla devamlı tehdit altında bir şehir olması bakımından özellikle ilgi çekicidir/ özel ilgiye haizdir. Beyrut’tan sonra mezhepsel çeşitliliğin hem geçmişte, hem günümüzde en yoğun olarak bulunduğu bu şehirde, sıklıkla Hristiyan nüfus Osmanlı yönetimi ve göçebe aşiretler arasında kalmıştır. Bedevileri ele almak, bu nedenle mezheplerin bir arada varoluşunu ve Levanten şehir yaşamını etkileyen zayıflamakta olan Osmanlı gücünü tüm yönlerine ele almak demektir. Bu makale Halep’teki İngiliz Konsolosluğunun daha önce yayınlanmamış arşiv kayıtlarından faydalanmıştır.

Categories: Articles Winter 2012, Vol. 2, No. 2 Winter 2012 Tags: 20th Century, Aleppo, Bedouin, British Archive, British Mandate, History, Michael Kreutz, Ottoman Empire, Syria

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e.searchParams.append(ADS_PARAM,"1"),this._baseURL.searchParams.forEach(((t,n)=>{e.searchParams.append(n,t)})),e}get pageOptions(){const e=Object.assign({},this._pageOptions);return Object.keys(this._pageOptions).forEach((t=>{t.startsWith("bodis")&&delete e[t]})),e}get cannotLoadAds(){return!this.ads.loaded}get wantsToServeAds(){return new URLSearchParams(window.location.search).has(ADS_PARAM)}get adsMode(){return this.ads.loaded&&this.wantsToServeAds}get adsReady(){return this.wantsToServeAds&&!this.cannotLoadAds}get noAdsRedirectUrl(){const e=new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);return KNOWN_CAF_PARAMS.forEach((t=>e.delete(t))),`${window.location.origin}?${e.toString()}`}get callbacks(){return this.ads.toCallbacks()}toContext(){return Object.assign({blocks:this.blocks,pageOptions:this.pageOptions},this.ads.toContext())}}class CookieConsentManager{constructor(){this.injectScriptTag=()=>__awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){return new Promise((e=>{const t=document.createElement("script");t.setAttribute("src",COOKIE_CONSENT_JS_URL),t.addEventListener("load",(()=>this.awaitConsent(e))),t.addEventListener("error",(()=>e(!1))),document.head.appendChild(t)}))}))}inject(){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){this.injected||!COOKIE_CONSENT_JS_URL||isLocal()||(this.injected=yield this.injectScriptTag())}))}awaitConsent(e){let t=0;const n=setInterval((()=>{t+=1,20===t&&(clearInterval(n),e(!0)),void 0!==window.__tcfapi&&(window.addEventListener("ConsentActivity",(t=>{const{detail:{status:n}}=t;n&&e(!0)})),clearInterval(n))}),50)}}class App{main(){var e,t;return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){if(this.parkResponse=decode(),this.findDomainResponse=yield getFindDomain(),!this.findDomainResponse)throw new Error("Domain failed to load.");this.pixels=Pixels.build(this.findDomainResponse),null===(e=this.pixels)||void 0===e||e.listenForEvents(),this.adblock=new Adblock,yield this.adblock.inject(),this.google=Google.build(this.findDomainResponse,this.parkResponse,this.adblock,buildSignature({context:this.context,callbacks:null===(t=this.google)||void 0===t?void 0:t.callbacks},"click")),this.google.injectTagManager();const n=Parking.build(this.findDomainResponse,this.google);Render.prerender(n),this.cookieConsentManager=new CookieConsentManager,yield this.cookieConsentManager.inject();let i=Failed.cannotPark(this.findDomainResponse);if(i)return void(yield this.transitionToFailed(i,n));yield this.google.injectAds();let s=Disabled.build(this.findDomainResponse,this.adblock.state);if(s)return void(yield this.transitionToDisabled(s,n));const a=this.adblock.hasAdblocker();a&&this.adblock.handleAdblocked();const o=Sales.build(this.findDomainResponse);if(o)return void(yield this.transitionToSales(o));this.eligibleForZeroClick&&(this.zeroClickResponse=yield getZeroClick(this.context));const r=Redirect.build(this.findDomainResponse,this.zeroClickResponse,this.google);if(r)yield this.transitionToRedirect(r);else{if(a)return s=Disabled.build(this.findDomainResponse,this.adblock.state),void(yield this.transitionToDisabled(s,n));i=Failed.noSponsors(this.google),i?yield this.transitionToFailed(i,n):yield this.transitionToParking(n)}}))}transitionToParking(e){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){this.state=e,Render.template(e),Render.revealPage(),yield this.google.waitForBlocks(),yield this.track()}))}transitionToRedirect(e){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){this.state=e;const t=this.track();Render.revealPage(),yield waiter(e.delay,(e=>Render.loading(e))),yield t,window.location.href=e.url,log(`➡ Redirecting [${e.url}]`)}))}transitionToFailed(e,t){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){this.state=e,Render.message(e.message),Render.injectJS(t.javascript),Render.revealPage(),yield this.track()}))}transitionToSales(e){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){this.state=e,e.init(this.context),yield this.track()}))}transitionToDisabled(e,t){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){this.state=e,Render.message(e.message),Render.injectJS(t.javascript),Render.revealPage(),yield this.track()}))}track(){var e;return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){if(!this.state.track)return Promise.resolve();try{const t=this.state.trackingType;return null===(e=this.pixels)||void 0===e||e.dispatchEvent({type:t}),trackVisit({context:this.context,callbacks:this.google.callbacks},t)}catch(e){return}}))}get eligibleForZeroClick(){const{cannotPark:e,canZeroClick:t,zeroClick:n}=this.findDomainResponse,{cannotLoadAds:i,wantsToServeAds:s}=this.google;return this.adblock.state!==Blocking.BLOCKED&&(!!t&&(!!e||(!(!i||s)||!!(null==n?void 0:n.reason))))}get context(){var e,t,n,i;const s=this.findDomainResponse,a=this.parkResponse,o=null===(e=this.state)||void 0===e?void 0:e.toContext(),r=null===(t=this.adblock)||void 0===t?void 0:t.toContext(),d=null===(n=this.google)||void 0===n?void 0:n.toContext(),c=browserState(),l=Object.assign(Object.assign({},null===(i=this.findDomainResponse)||void 0===i?void 0:i.zeroClick),this.zeroClickResponse);return Object.assign(Object.assign(Object.assign(Object.assign(Object.assign(Object.assign(Object.assign({app_version:APP_VERSION},s),a),r),d),o),c),{zeroClick:l})}init(){return __awaiter(this,void 0,void 0,(function*(){try{window.__parkour=this,yield this.main()}catch(e){console.error("app",e);const t=Failed.fromError(e);this.state=t,Render.message(t.message),Render.revealPage()}}))}}(new App).init(),exports.App=App}));

Unrest at the Gates of Aleppo: British Perspectives on the Bedouin Challenge to Public Security in Northern Syria, 1848-1913

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Michael Kreutz

Michael Kreutz

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